Philosophia: 喜欢智慧
Epimeleia heautou: care of the self
Plato's Apology: 柏拉图的申辩
The rush to the old
The condition of stultitia
The state of ataraxia
The ideal state of old age
Seneca's Living in this world--the law of nature
The Concept of Sage
Saturday, October 17, 2009
Ataraxia & Apatheia
Ataraxia is a Greek term used by Pyrrho and Epicurus for a luculent state, characterized by freedom from worry or any other preoccupation. Ataraxia, mental imperturbability, was the result to be attained by cultivating such a frame of mind. As in Stoicism and Epicureanism, the happiness or satisfaction of the individual was the goal of life, and all three philosophies placed it in tranquility or indifference.
For the Epicureans, ataraxia was synonymous with the only true happiness possible for a person. It signifies the state of robust tranquility that derives from eschewing faith in an afterlife, not fearing the gods because they are distant and unconcerned with us, avoiding politics and vexatious people, surrounding oneself with trustworthy and affectionate friends and, most importantly, being an affectionate, virtuous person, worthy of trust.
For the Pyrrhonians, owing to one's inability to say which sense impressions are true and which ones are false, it is the quietude that arises from suspending judgment on dogmatic beliefs or anything non-evident and continuing to inquire. The experience was said to have fallen on the painter Apelles who was trying to paint the foamy saliva of a horse. He was so unsuccessful that, in a rage, he gave up and threw the sponge he was cleaning his brushes with at the medium, thus producing the effect of the horse's foam.
The Stoics, too, sought mental tranquility, and saw ataraxia as something to be desired and often made use of the term, but for them the analogous state, attained by the Stoic sage, was apatheia or absence of passion.
Apatheia in Stoic philosophy refers to a state of mind where one is free from emotional disturbance. Whereas Aristotle had claimed that virtue was to be found in the golden mean between excess and deficiency of emotion (metriopatheia), the Stoics sought freedom from all passions (apatheia). It meant eradicating the emotional response to external events - the things we cannot control. For the Stoics, it was the optimum rational response to the world, for we cannot control things that are caused by the will of others or by Nature, we can only control our own will. This did not mean a loss of all feeling, or total disengagement from the world. The Stoic who performs correct (virtuous) judgments and actions as part of the world-order experiences contentment (eudaimonia) and good feelings (eupatheia).
For the Epicureans, ataraxia was synonymous with the only true happiness possible for a person. It signifies the state of robust tranquility that derives from eschewing faith in an afterlife, not fearing the gods because they are distant and unconcerned with us, avoiding politics and vexatious people, surrounding oneself with trustworthy and affectionate friends and, most importantly, being an affectionate, virtuous person, worthy of trust.
For the Pyrrhonians, owing to one's inability to say which sense impressions are true and which ones are false, it is the quietude that arises from suspending judgment on dogmatic beliefs or anything non-evident and continuing to inquire. The experience was said to have fallen on the painter Apelles who was trying to paint the foamy saliva of a horse. He was so unsuccessful that, in a rage, he gave up and threw the sponge he was cleaning his brushes with at the medium, thus producing the effect of the horse's foam.
The Stoics, too, sought mental tranquility, and saw ataraxia as something to be desired and often made use of the term, but for them the analogous state, attained by the Stoic sage, was apatheia or absence of passion.
Apatheia in Stoic philosophy refers to a state of mind where one is free from emotional disturbance. Whereas Aristotle had claimed that virtue was to be found in the golden mean between excess and deficiency of emotion (metriopatheia), the Stoics sought freedom from all passions (apatheia). It meant eradicating the emotional response to external events - the things we cannot control. For the Stoics, it was the optimum rational response to the world, for we cannot control things that are caused by the will of others or by Nature, we can only control our own will. This did not mean a loss of all feeling, or total disengagement from the world. The Stoic who performs correct (virtuous) judgments and actions as part of the world-order experiences contentment (eudaimonia) and good feelings (eupatheia).
Friday, October 16, 2009
Hellenistic Philosophy
Hellenistic civilization: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization
Hellenistic philosophy: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy
Hellenistic （希腊化）civilization represents the zenith of Greek influence in the ancient world from 323 BC to about 146 BC. It is a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East, Middle East and Southwest Asia, and a departure from earlier Greek attitudes towards "barbarian" cultures. It refers to the spreading of Greek culture and colonization over the non-Greek lands that were conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, compared to "Hellenic" which describes Greek culture in its native form.
The end of the Hellenistic period is often considered to be 146 BC, when the Roman Republic conquered most of mainland Greece, and absorbed all of ancient Macedon. By this time the rise of Rome to absolute political prominence in the Mediterranean was complete, and this might therefore mark the start of the 'Roman period'. An alternative date is 30 BC, when the final Hellenistic kingdom of Ptolemaic Egypt was conquered by Rome (the last remnants of the Seleucid empire having been taken over thirty years earlier). This more obviously represents the absolute end of the power of the Hellenistic civilizations.
Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism.
Hellenistic school of thought:
Platonism: Platonism is the name given to the philosophy of Plato, which was maintained and developed by his followers. The central concept was the Theory of forms: the transcendent, perfect archetypes, of which objects in the everyday world are imperfect copies. The highest form was the Form of the Good, God, the source of being, which could be known by reason. In the 3rd century BCE, Arcesilaus adopted skepticism, which became a central tenet of the school until 90 BCE when Antiochus added Stoic elements, rejecting skepticism. With the adoption of oriental mysticism in the 3rd century CE, Platonism evolved into Neoplatonism.
Classical Antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman literature (such as Aeschylus, Ovid, Homer and others) flourished.
Late Antiquity (3rd-8th century), from the end of the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century (c. 235 - 284) to the Islamic conquests and the re-organization of the Eastern Roman Empire under Heraclius.
Middle Ages, period in history which lasted for roughly a millennium, commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion.
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Hellenistic philosophy: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy
Hellenistic （希腊化）civilization represents the zenith of Greek influence in the ancient world from 323 BC to about 146 BC. It is a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East, Middle East and Southwest Asia, and a departure from earlier Greek attitudes towards "barbarian" cultures. It refers to the spreading of Greek culture and colonization over the non-Greek lands that were conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, compared to "Hellenic" which describes Greek culture in its native form.
The end of the Hellenistic period is often considered to be 146 BC, when the Roman Republic conquered most of mainland Greece, and absorbed all of ancient Macedon. By this time the rise of Rome to absolute political prominence in the Mediterranean was complete, and this might therefore mark the start of the 'Roman period'. An alternative date is 30 BC, when the final Hellenistic kingdom of Ptolemaic Egypt was conquered by Rome (the last remnants of the Seleucid empire having been taken over thirty years earlier). This more obviously represents the absolute end of the power of the Hellenistic civilizations.
Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism.
Hellenistic school of thought:
Platonism: Platonism is the name given to the philosophy of Plato, which was maintained and developed by his followers. The central concept was the Theory of forms: the transcendent, perfect archetypes, of which objects in the everyday world are imperfect copies. The highest form was the Form of the Good, God, the source of being, which could be known by reason. In the 3rd century BCE, Arcesilaus adopted skepticism, which became a central tenet of the school until 90 BCE when Antiochus added Stoic elements, rejecting skepticism. With the adoption of oriental mysticism in the 3rd century CE, Platonism evolved into Neoplatonism.
- Speusippus (407-339 BCE)
- Xenocrates (396-314 BCE)
- Arcesilaus (316-232 BCE)
- Carneades (214-129 BCE)
- Antiochus of Ascalon (130-68 BCE)
- Plutarch (46-120 CE)
- Theophrastus (371-287 BCE)
- Strato of Lampsacus (335-269 BCE)
- Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 CE)
- Aristippus of Cyrene (435-360 BCE)
- Epicurus (341-270 BCE)
- Metrodorus (331-278 BCE)
- Zeno of Sidon (1st century BCE)
- Philodemus (110-40 BCE)
- Lucretius (99-55 BCE)
- Zeno of Citium (333-263 BCE)
- Cleanthes (331-232 BCE)
- Chrysippus (280-207 BCE)
- Panaetius (185-110 BCE)
- Posidonius (135-51 BCE)
- Epictetus (55-135 CE)
- Pyrrho (365-275 BCE)
- Timon (320-230 BCE)
- Aenesidemus (1st century BCE)
- Sextus Empiricus (2nd century CE)
- Cicero (106-43 BCE)
- Philo of Alexandria (30 BC-45 CE)
- Apollonius of Tyana (40-120 CE)
- Numenius of Apamea (2nd century CE)
- Clement of Alexandria (150-215 CE)
- Origen (185-254 CE)
- Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE)
- Plotinus (205-270 CE)
- Porphyry (233-309 CE)
- Iamblichus of Chalcis (245-325 CE)
Classical Antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman literature (such as Aeschylus, Ovid, Homer and others) flourished.
Late Antiquity (3rd-8th century), from the end of the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century (c. 235 - 284) to the Islamic conquests and the re-organization of the Eastern Roman Empire under Heraclius.
Middle Ages, period in history which lasted for roughly a millennium, commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion.
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Friday, October 9, 2009
庄子： 万物云云，各复其根
云将东游而适遭鸿蒙。
云将曰：“吾遭天难，愿闻一言。”
鸿蒙曰：“心养。汝徒处无为，而物自化。堕尔形体，吐尔聪明，伦与物忘，解心释神，莫然无魂。万物云云，各复其根，各复其根而不知。无问其名，无窥其情，物固自生。”
至人无己, 神人无功, 圣人无名。鼓盆而歌。庄周梦蝶。死亦可乐。无用之用，方是大用。
庄子（约前369-286），名周，后称南华真人，战国时期宋国蒙人，先秦思想家，哲学家，道家的代表人物。庄子的思想属于主观唯心主义，他所倡导的是天道无为，齐物我，齐是非，齐生死，齐贵贱，与天地同生，与万物为一的精神境界；他所追求的是安时处顺，逍遥自在，清净无为的生活方式。庄子曾做过漆园小吏，后厌恶仕途，隐居著述。《庄子》一书又称《南华真经》，原著52篇，现存33篇，其中内篇7，外篇15，杂篇11。全书以内篇为核心，实出于庄子之笔，名篇有《齐物论》，《逍遥游》，《养生主》和《大宗师》等。
庄子认为人生应追求自由，心灵不要被外物所累，顺乎自然，心与道合一。乘天地之正，而御六气之辩，以游无穷。
庄子网站： http://baike.baidu.com/view/2760.htm
云将曰：“吾遭天难，愿闻一言。”
鸿蒙曰：“心养。汝徒处无为，而物自化。堕尔形体，吐尔聪明，伦与物忘，解心释神，莫然无魂。万物云云，各复其根，各复其根而不知。无问其名，无窥其情，物固自生。”
至人无己, 神人无功, 圣人无名。鼓盆而歌。庄周梦蝶。死亦可乐。无用之用，方是大用。
庄子（约前369-286），名周，后称南华真人，战国时期宋国蒙人，先秦思想家，哲学家，道家的代表人物。庄子的思想属于主观唯心主义，他所倡导的是天道无为，齐物我，齐是非，齐生死，齐贵贱，与天地同生，与万物为一的精神境界；他所追求的是安时处顺，逍遥自在，清净无为的生活方式。庄子曾做过漆园小吏，后厌恶仕途，隐居著述。《庄子》一书又称《南华真经》，原著52篇，现存33篇，其中内篇7，外篇15，杂篇11。全书以内篇为核心，实出于庄子之笔，名篇有《齐物论》，《逍遥游》，《养生主》和《大宗师》等。
庄子认为人生应追求自由，心灵不要被外物所累，顺乎自然，心与道合一。乘天地之正，而御六气之辩，以游无穷。
庄子网站： http://baike.baidu.com/view/2760.htm
Thursday, October 8, 2009
Martin Heidegger： Dasein
Being and Time
Dasein: Da-Sein literally means being there/here, a German term for "existence." Heidegger's Dasein used it for "human entity," some structured awareness or an institutional "way of life." Dasein is essentially an entity with Being-in. Dasein is always a being engaged in the world. The fundamental mode of Being is not that of a subject or of the objective but of the coherence of Being-in-the-world.
Dasein: Da-Sein literally means being there/here, a German term for "existence." Heidegger's Dasein used it for "human entity," some structured awareness or an institutional "way of life." Dasein is essentially an entity with Being-in. Dasein is always a being engaged in the world. The fundamental mode of Being is not that of a subject or of the objective but of the coherence of Being-in-the-world.
Wednesday, October 7, 2009
西方古典哲学与修身养性
Epicurus:
学习哲学是为了净化灵魂，陶冶情操，年轻的时候不要为了学习哲学而犹豫，老年的时候不要为了学习哲学而踌躇。如果我们说学哲学为时过早或过晚的话，这就好象在说，对幸福的追求太早或太迟一样。追求幸福就是生活的本身，它是每时每刻的事，也是一辈子的事。
拥有世界容易，拥有自己难。
如何看待修身养性在某种程度上是一个人对自己生活方式的选择。
Epicurus问来找他学习的人：“你是用什么方式来照顾自己的？你的生活哲学是什么？”
practice of the self: 如何做人？
Is care of the self a universal ethical law?
养心的过程是自我修行的过程。养心的过程也是自我解放的过程。Seneca说过，“We should not think that the evil that afflicts us comes from outside; it is not external to us but within us. The evil is therefore in our vitals." 让我们烦恼的不是外在邪恶的侵袭，而是我们内心积淀的体现。
On old age. Seneca again. (Michel Foucault p110)两个观点。 一。抛开真正的实际年龄不讲，在时间这条线上，你应该跑得越快越好，就好象有敌人在背后追你似的，你的任务是把他们尽早甩掉，这些敌人代表着你心中的欲望，包括你对性的要求，对金钱和权势的垂涎等等，这些都是你生活中的羁绊和束缚，都是年轻和不成熟的表现，所以你应该尽快摆脱它们，达到心理上的成熟。给自己找到一个安全的地方，而这个安全的地方就是老年，或者说是老年人能够达到的一种境界，只有经历丰富的年长之人才能够体会到所有这些诱惑我们的都是我们的敌人，是我们心灵上的敌人，是扰乱我们内心平静的因素。二。只有老年人可以做到完全拥有自己，具备做自己的主人的能力，可以达到一种理想的自由的状态，当我们可以放下生活，活在一种虽然活着但把生活当作已经结束的状态，活在一种没有需求没有欲望的冷静之中，与世界和其他人事已经摆平，自己活着时应该做的事情已经全部完全，这是一种没有任何压力的状态，也是理想式的老年人的状态。如果在年轻时就可以达到这种状态的话，就是赢得了时间，走到了时间的前头，在没有死之前就把死的状态达到了。我们必须在没有死之前体会到死。we must complete our life before death. 我不知道是不是把我真正的意思表达清楚了。Seneca: consummare vitam ante mortem.我们必须在死之前把死的任务完成，在死之前把我们一辈子的任务完成，在死之前对自己有一个很好的总结，在死之前达到一种对自己完全满意的状态： Summa tui satietas---对自己完全彻底的满意。
Seneca的意思是，我们应该在年轻的时候，就让自己的心理心智成熟程度到老年人才具备的状态，活在老年人的水平上，让自己成熟的快一些，趁着年轻能有更多的时间去享受老年人的精神境界，去琢磨死的价值，练习死的滋味，把每一天做为人生的最后一天来体验。
养心意念的产生已经标明了我们对自己高层次的要求，对现实生活的厌倦。我们周围的环境也许跟我们的愿望大相径庭，
养心和学会取悦别人是正好相反的两件事。养心和装饰打扮自己也完全是两回事。养心来自于内，功于内。把自己打扮得漂漂亮亮，把自己的家庭装饰得富丽堂皇，和社会给我们定下了很多条条框框，我们生下来
西方古代对修身养性的一套系统的训练从公元后第一个和第二个世纪开始。修身养性成为生活的一个组成部分，而不再是其前提。修身养性为老年生活做好准备，把人生最不寻常的一段过好。这时基督教的势力还没有在社会中占上风。
修身养性需要一种环境，一种特殊的环境，跟其它环境不同的环境。修身养性意味着一种特殊的生活方式，Martin Heidegger在他的Being and Time一书中提到，日常生活，我们通常把时间花在满足我们的好奇心和闲聊上，这种好奇心属于泛泛一类，缺乏深度，只为了解而了解，诸如对新闻和国事，对邻里朋友同事亲戚之间的一些事情的好奇等等，知道与不知道并没有什么大的区别，今天的过去了还有明天的。
用什么样的方式可以达到修身养性的状态，用什么样的方法来训练自己，修身养性的人和其他人有什么区别，修身养性是否意味着远离和自己不同的人，修身养性的人是否需要有一个集体。古希腊那些致力于修身养性的人一般都是指某一个组织里的人，像享乐派的学校，禁欲派的追随者等等。
修身养性是西方古典哲学的精髓，也是它的落脚点，也是当时崇尚流传的时风，而且不仅限于达官贵族和学者之间。
医药治病，哲学治人。
Lucian's satires.
Hermotimus and Lycinus.
Lycinus asks Hermotimus: "How long have you been going to your masters?"
Lycinus answers: "Twenty years now."
"For twenty years, you must have given him a lot of money?"
"But of course. I have given him a lot of money."
"But won't this apprenticeship in philosophy, in the art of living and happiness soon be at an end?"
"Oh yes, of course, it won't be long. I reckon to have finished in another twenty years."
Hermontimus began to study philosophy when he was forty. He has gone to his master for twenty years. So now he is 60. At sixty he is exactly at the the midway of his journey. Then Lycinus says, "But this is fine, I'm forty, exactly at the age to begin my training. Be my guide and lea me by the band."
毕达戈拉斯把人生分为四个阶段，二十年一个阶段，二十，四十，六十，八十，一共八十岁：第一个二十年是儿童时期，第二个二十年是青年时期，第三个二十年是壮年时期，第四个阶段是老年时期。
Seneca: Tranquility, Nature Questions,
Philo's De Vita contemplativa里的故事，有一些老年人相信来世和永生，而且认为他们活着的时候就已经达到了这种状态，他们的肉体的活动在世时就已经结束，所以他们提前把自己的财产分给了自己的儿女和朋友等人。
学习哲学是为了净化灵魂，陶冶情操，年轻的时候不要为了学习哲学而犹豫，老年的时候不要为了学习哲学而踌躇。如果我们说学哲学为时过早或过晚的话，这就好象在说，对幸福的追求太早或太迟一样。追求幸福就是生活的本身，它是每时每刻的事，也是一辈子的事。
拥有世界容易，拥有自己难。
如何看待修身养性在某种程度上是一个人对自己生活方式的选择。
Epicurus问来找他学习的人：“你是用什么方式来照顾自己的？你的生活哲学是什么？”
practice of the self: 如何做人？
Is care of the self a universal ethical law?
养心的过程是自我修行的过程。养心的过程也是自我解放的过程。Seneca说过，“We should not think that the evil that afflicts us comes from outside; it is not external to us but within us. The evil is therefore in our vitals." 让我们烦恼的不是外在邪恶的侵袭，而是我们内心积淀的体现。
On old age. Seneca again. (Michel Foucault p110)两个观点。 一。抛开真正的实际年龄不讲，在时间这条线上，你应该跑得越快越好，就好象有敌人在背后追你似的，你的任务是把他们尽早甩掉，这些敌人代表着你心中的欲望，包括你对性的要求，对金钱和权势的垂涎等等，这些都是你生活中的羁绊和束缚，都是年轻和不成熟的表现，所以你应该尽快摆脱它们，达到心理上的成熟。给自己找到一个安全的地方，而这个安全的地方就是老年，或者说是老年人能够达到的一种境界，只有经历丰富的年长之人才能够体会到所有这些诱惑我们的都是我们的敌人，是我们心灵上的敌人，是扰乱我们内心平静的因素。二。只有老年人可以做到完全拥有自己，具备做自己的主人的能力，可以达到一种理想的自由的状态，当我们可以放下生活，活在一种虽然活着但把生活当作已经结束的状态，活在一种没有需求没有欲望的冷静之中，与世界和其他人事已经摆平，自己活着时应该做的事情已经全部完全，这是一种没有任何压力的状态，也是理想式的老年人的状态。如果在年轻时就可以达到这种状态的话，就是赢得了时间，走到了时间的前头，在没有死之前就把死的状态达到了。我们必须在没有死之前体会到死。we must complete our life before death. 我不知道是不是把我真正的意思表达清楚了。Seneca: consummare vitam ante mortem.我们必须在死之前把死的任务完成，在死之前把我们一辈子的任务完成，在死之前对自己有一个很好的总结，在死之前达到一种对自己完全满意的状态： Summa tui satietas---对自己完全彻底的满意。
Seneca的意思是，我们应该在年轻的时候，就让自己的心理心智成熟程度到老年人才具备的状态，活在老年人的水平上，让自己成熟的快一些，趁着年轻能有更多的时间去享受老年人的精神境界，去琢磨死的价值，练习死的滋味，把每一天做为人生的最后一天来体验。
养心意念的产生已经标明了我们对自己高层次的要求，对现实生活的厌倦。我们周围的环境也许跟我们的愿望大相径庭，
养心和学会取悦别人是正好相反的两件事。养心和装饰打扮自己也完全是两回事。养心来自于内，功于内。把自己打扮得漂漂亮亮，把自己的家庭装饰得富丽堂皇，和社会给我们定下了很多条条框框，我们生下来
西方古代对修身养性的一套系统的训练从公元后第一个和第二个世纪开始。修身养性成为生活的一个组成部分，而不再是其前提。修身养性为老年生活做好准备，把人生最不寻常的一段过好。这时基督教的势力还没有在社会中占上风。
修身养性需要一种环境，一种特殊的环境，跟其它环境不同的环境。修身养性意味着一种特殊的生活方式，Martin Heidegger在他的Being and Time一书中提到，日常生活，我们通常把时间花在满足我们的好奇心和闲聊上，这种好奇心属于泛泛一类，缺乏深度，只为了解而了解，诸如对新闻和国事，对邻里朋友同事亲戚之间的一些事情的好奇等等，知道与不知道并没有什么大的区别，今天的过去了还有明天的。
用什么样的方式可以达到修身养性的状态，用什么样的方法来训练自己，修身养性的人和其他人有什么区别，修身养性是否意味着远离和自己不同的人，修身养性的人是否需要有一个集体。古希腊那些致力于修身养性的人一般都是指某一个组织里的人，像享乐派的学校，禁欲派的追随者等等。
修身养性是西方古典哲学的精髓，也是它的落脚点，也是当时崇尚流传的时风，而且不仅限于达官贵族和学者之间。
医药治病，哲学治人。
Lucian's satires.
Hermotimus and Lycinus.
Lycinus asks Hermotimus: "How long have you been going to your masters?"
Lycinus answers: "Twenty years now."
"For twenty years, you must have given him a lot of money?"
"But of course. I have given him a lot of money."
"But won't this apprenticeship in philosophy, in the art of living and happiness soon be at an end?"
"Oh yes, of course, it won't be long. I reckon to have finished in another twenty years."
Hermontimus began to study philosophy when he was forty. He has gone to his master for twenty years. So now he is 60. At sixty he is exactly at the the midway of his journey. Then Lycinus says, "But this is fine, I'm forty, exactly at the age to begin my training. Be my guide and lea me by the band."
毕达戈拉斯把人生分为四个阶段，二十年一个阶段，二十，四十，六十，八十，一共八十岁：第一个二十年是儿童时期，第二个二十年是青年时期，第三个二十年是壮年时期，第四个阶段是老年时期。
Seneca: Tranquility, Nature Questions,
Philo's De Vita contemplativa里的故事，有一些老年人相信来世和永生，而且认为他们活着的时候就已经达到了这种状态，他们的肉体的活动在世时就已经结束，所以他们提前把自己的财产分给了自己的儿女和朋友等人。
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