19th Century Philosophy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century_philosophy

With the tumultuous years of 1789-1815, European culture was transformed by revolution, war and disruption. By ending many of the social and cultural props of the previous century, the stage was set for dramatic economic and political change. European philosophy reflected on, participated in, and drove, many of these changes.

Philosophical schools and tendencies:
German idealism: Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer

Utilitarianism: In early 19th century Britain, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill promoted the idea that actions are right as they maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Marxism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Existentialism: Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche

Positivism: Auguste Comte. the view that the rigorous ordering of confirmable observations alone ought to constitute the realm of human knowledge.

Pragmatism: The American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce and William James developed the pragmatist philosophy in the late 19th century.

British idealism: a revival of interest in the works of Kant and Hegel.

Transcendentalism: rooted in Immanuel Kant's transcendence and German idealism, lead by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. The main belief was in an ideal spiritual state that 'transcends' the physical and empirical and is only realized through the individual's intuition, rather than through the doctrines of established religions.

18th Century Philosophy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is held to be the source of critical ideas, such as the centrality of freedom, democracy, and reason as primary values of society.

No brief summary can do justice to the diversity of enlightened thought in 18th-century Europe. Because it was a value system rather than a set of shared beliefs, there are many contradictory trains to follow. In his famous essay "What is Enlightenment?" (1784), Immanuel Kant described it simply as freedom to use one's own intelligence. More broadly, the Enlightenment period is marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increasing questioning of religious orthodoxy.

Important figures:

• Balthasar Bekker (1634–1698) Dutch, a key figure in the Early Enlightenment. In his book De Philosophia Cartesiana (1668) Bekker argued that theology and philosophy each had their separate terrain and that Nature can no more be explained from Scripture than can theological truth be deduced from Nature.
• Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) French. Literary critic known for Nouvelles de la république des lettres and Dictionnaire historique et critique, and one of the earliest influences on the Enlightenment thinkers to advocate tolerance between the difference religious beliefs.
• Cesare Beccaria Italian. Best known for his treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764).
• George Berkeley Irish. Philosopher and mathematician famous for developing the theory of subjective idealism.
• James Boswell (1740–1795) Scottish. Biographer of Samuel Johnson, helped established the norms for writing biography in general.
• Edmund Burke (1729–1797) Irish. Parliamentarian and political philosopher, best known for pragmatism, considered important to both liberal and conservative thinking.
• Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723) Romanian. Philosopher, historian, composer, musicologist, linguist, ethnographer, and geographer. He was a member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. His most important works were History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire and Descriptio Moldavie.
• Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794) French. Philosopher, mathematician, and early political scientist who devised the concept of a Condorcet method.
• Denis Diderot (1713–1784) French. Founder of the Encyclopédie, speculated on free will and attachment to material objects, contributed to the theory of literature.
• Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) American. Statesman, scientist, political philosopher, pragmatic deist, author. As a philosopher known for his writings on nationality, economic matters, aphorisms published in Poor Richard's Almanac and polemics in favour of American Independence. Involved with writing the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787.
• Joseph-Alexandre-Victor Hupay de Fuveau,(1746–1818), writer and philosopher who had used for the first time in 1785 the word "communism" in a doctrinal sense.
• Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) English. Historian best known for his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is closely identified with Enlightenment values, progressing from Sturm und Drang and participating with Schiller in the movement of Weimar Classicism.
• Johann Gottfried von Herder German. Theologian and linguist. Proposed that language determines thought, introduced concepts of ethnic study and nationalism, influential on later Romantic thinkers. Early supporter of democracy and republican self rule.
• Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) English philosopher, who wrote Leviathan, a key text in political philosophy.
• Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789) French. Author, encyclopaedist and Europe's first outspoken atheist. Roused much controversy over his criticism of religion as a whole in his work The System of Nature.
• David Hume (1711–1776) Scottish. Historian, philosopher and economist. Best known for his empiricism and scientific scepticism, advanced doctrines of naturalism and material causes. Influenced Kant and Adam Smith.
• Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) American. Statesman, political philosopher, educator, deist. As a philosopher best known for the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and his interpretation of the United States Constitution (1787) which he pursued as president. Argued for natural rights as the basis of all states, argued that violation of these rights negates the contract which bind a people to their rulers and that therefore there is an inherent "Right to Revolution."
• Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) German. Philosopher and physicist. Established critical philosophy on a systematic basis, proposed a material theory for the origin of the solar system, wrote on ethics and morals. Prescribed a politics of Enlightenment in What is Enlightenment? (1784). Influenced by Hume and Isaac Newton. Important figure in German Idealism, and important to the work of Fichte and Hegel.
• Gottfried Leibniz Inventor of Calculus as we know it today and wrote Protogea, amongst other scientific and philosophical works.
• Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781) German. Dramatist, critic, political philosopher. Created theatre in the German language, began reappraisal of Shakespeare to being a central figure, and the importance of classical dramatic norms as being crucial to good dramatic writing, theorized that the centre of political and cultural life is the middle class.
• John Locke (1632–1704) English Philosopher.
• Montesquieu (1689–1755) French political thinker. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions all over the world.
• Thomas Reid (1710–1796) Scottish. Presbyterian minister and Philosopher. Contributed greatly to the idea of Common-Sense philosophy and was Hume's most famous contemporary critic. Best known for his An Inquiry Into The Human Mind. Heavily influenced William James.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Swiss political philosopher. Argued that the basis of morality was conscience, rather than reason, as most other philosophers argued. 
• Adam Smith (1723–1790) Scottish economist and philosopher. He wrote The Wealth of Nations, in which he argued that wealth was not money in itself, but wealth was derived from the added value in manufactured items produced by both invested capital and labor. 
• Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) Dutch, philosopher who is considered to have laid the groundwork for the 18th-century Enlightenment.  
• François-Marie Arouet (pen name Voltaire) (1694–1778) French Enlightenment writer, essayist, deist and philosopher. He wrote several books, the most famous of which is Dictionnaire Philosophique, in which he argued that organized religion is pernicious. He was the Enlightenment's most vigorous antireligious polemicist, as well as being a highly well known advocate of intellectual freedom.
• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) British writer, philosopher, and feminist.

17th Century Philosophy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th_century_philosophy

The Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism. In western philosophy, 17th century is considered the start of modern philosophy with the work of René Descartes.

Two schools of thought: the rationalists and the empiricists.

Three main rationalists: René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz. Building upon their English predecessor Francis Bacon.

Three main empiricists: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and George Berkeley.

17th Century Philosophers:

• Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• Thomas Browne (1605-82)
• Mir Damad (d. 1631)
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Mulla Sadra (1571–1640)
• René Descartes (1596–1650)
• Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
• Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
• Francisco Suárez (1548–1617)
• John Locke (1632–1704)
• Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715)
• Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
• Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)
• Pierre Bayle (1647–1706)
• Damaris Cudworth Masham (1659–1708)
• Mary Astell (1666–1731)
• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
• John Milton (1608-1674)

Writing Ideas for The Care of the Self

Philosophia: 喜欢智慧
Epimeleia heautou: care of the self
Plato's Apology: 柏拉图的申辩
The rush to the old
The condition of stultitia
The state of ataraxia
The ideal state of old age
Seneca's Living in this world--the law of nature
The Concept of Sage

Ataraxia & Apatheia

Ataraxia is a Greek term used by Pyrrho and Epicurus for a luculent state, characterized by freedom from worry or any other preoccupation. Ataraxia, mental imperturbability, was the result to be attained by cultivating such a frame of mind. As in Stoicism and Epicureanism, the happiness or satisfaction of the individual was the goal of life, and all three philosophies placed it in tranquility or indifference.

For the Epicureans, ataraxia was synonymous with the only true happiness possible for a person. It signifies the state of robust tranquility that derives from eschewing faith in an afterlife, not fearing the gods because they are distant and unconcerned with us, avoiding politics and vexatious people, surrounding oneself with trustworthy and affectionate friends and, most importantly, being an affectionate, virtuous person, worthy of trust.

For the Pyrrhonians, owing to one's inability to say which sense impressions are true and which ones are false, it is the quietude that arises from suspending judgment on dogmatic beliefs or anything non-evident and continuing to inquire. The experience was said to have fallen on the painter Apelles who was trying to paint the foamy saliva of a horse. He was so unsuccessful that, in a rage, he gave up and threw the sponge he was cleaning his brushes with at the medium, thus producing the effect of the horse's foam.

The Stoics, too, sought mental tranquility, and saw ataraxia as something to be desired and often made use of the term, but for them the analogous state, attained by the Stoic sage, was apatheia or absence of passion.

Apatheia in Stoic philosophy refers to a state of mind where one is free from emotional disturbance. Whereas Aristotle had claimed that virtue was to be found in the golden mean between excess and deficiency of emotion (metriopatheia), the Stoics sought freedom from all passions (apatheia). It meant eradicating the emotional response to external events - the things we cannot control. For the Stoics, it was the optimum rational response to the world, for we cannot control things that are caused by the will of others or by Nature, we can only control our own will. This did not mean a loss of all feeling, or total disengagement from the world. The Stoic who performs correct (virtuous) judgments and actions as part of the world-order experiences contentment (eudaimonia) and good feelings (eupatheia).

Hellenistic Philosophy

Hellenistic civilization:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization
Hellenistic philosophy:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy

Hellenistic （希腊化）civilization represents the zenith of Greek influence in the ancient world from 323 BC to about 146 BC. It is a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East, Middle East and Southwest Asia, and a departure from earlier Greek attitudes towards "barbarian" cultures. It refers to the spreading of Greek culture and colonization over the non-Greek lands that were conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, compared to "Hellenic" which describes Greek culture in its native form.

The end of the Hellenistic period is often considered to be 146 BC, when the Roman Republic conquered most of mainland Greece, and absorbed all of ancient Macedon. By this time the rise of Rome to absolute political prominence in the Mediterranean was complete, and this might therefore mark the start of the 'Roman period'. An alternative date is 30 BC, when the final Hellenistic kingdom of Ptolemaic Egypt was conquered by Rome (the last remnants of the Seleucid empire having been taken over thirty years earlier). This more obviously represents the absolute end of the power of the Hellenistic civilizations.

Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism.

Hellenistic school of thought:
Platonism: Platonism is the name given to the philosophy of Plato, which was maintained and developed by his followers. The central concept was the Theory of forms: the transcendent, perfect archetypes, of which objects in the everyday world are imperfect copies. The highest form was the Form of the Good, God, the source of being, which could be known by reason. In the 3rd century BCE, Arcesilaus adopted skepticism, which became a central tenet of the school until 90 BCE when Antiochus added Stoic elements, rejecting skepticism. With the adoption of oriental mysticism in the 3rd century CE, Platonism evolved into Neoplatonism.

• Speusippus (407-339 BCE)
• Xenocrates (396-314 BCE)
• Arcesilaus (316-232 BCE)
• Carneades (214-129 BCE)
• Antiochus of Ascalon (130-68 BCE)
• Plutarch (46-120 CE)

Peripateticism: The Peripatetics was the name given to the philosophers who maintained and developed the philosophy of Aristotle. They advocated examination of the world to understand the ultimate foundation of things. The goal of life was the happiness which originated from virtuous actions, which consisted in keeping the mean between the two extremes of the too much and the too little.

• Theophrastus (371-287 BCE)
• Strato of Lampsacus (335-269 BCE)
• Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 CE)

Cyrenaicism: The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE, by Aristippus of Cyrene. They held that pleasure was the supreme good, especially immediate gratifications. The school was replaced within a century by the more moderate doctrine of Epicureanism.

• Aristippus of Cyrene (435-360 BCE)

Epicureanism: founded by Epicurus in the 3rd century BC. It viewed the universe as being ruled by chance, with no interference from gods. It regarded absence of pain as the greatest pleasure, and advocated a simple life. It was the main rival to Stoicism until both philosophies died out in the 3rd century CE.

• Epicurus (341-270 BCE)
• Metrodorus (331-278 BCE)
• Zeno of Sidon (1st century BCE)
• Philodemus (110-40 BCE)
• Lucretius (99-55 BCE)

Stoicism: founded by Zeno of Citium in the 3rd century BCE. Based on the ethical ideas of the Cynics, it taught that the goal of life was to live in accordance with Nature. It advocated the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. It was the most successful school of philosophy until it died out in the 3rd century CE.

• Zeno of Citium (333-263 BCE)
• Cleanthes (331-232 BCE)
• Chrysippus (280-207 BCE)
• Panaetius (185-110 BCE)
• Posidonius (135-51 BCE)
• Epictetus (55-135 CE)

Pyrrhonism: or Pyrrhonian skepticism, was a school of skepticism beginning with Pyrrho in the 3rd century BCE, and further advanced by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BCE. It advocated total philosophical scepticism about the world in order to attain "ataraxia" or a tranquil mind, maintaining that nothing could be proved to be true so we must suspend judgment.

• Pyrrho (365-275 BCE)
• Timon (320-230 BCE)
• Aenesidemus (1st century BCE)
• Sextus Empiricus (2nd century CE)

Eclecticism: a system of philosophy which adopted no single set of doctrines but selected from existing philosophical beliefs those doctrines that seemed most reasonable. Its most notable advocate was Cicero.

• Cicero (106-43 BCE)

Hellenistic Judaism: an attempt to establish the Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism. Its principal representative was Philo of Alexandria.

• Philo of Alexandria (30 BC-45 CE)

Neopythagoreanism: a school of philosophy reviving Pythagorean doctrines, which was prominent in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. It was an attempt to introduce a religious element into Greek philosophy, worshiping God by living an ascetic life, ignoring bodily pleasures and all sensuous impulses, to purify the soul.

• Apollonius of Tyana (40-120 CE)
• Numenius of Apamea (2nd century CE)

Hellenistic Christianity: the attempt to reconcile Christianity with Greek philosophy, beginning in the late 2nd century CE. Drawing particularly on Platonism and the newly emerging Neoplatonism, figures such as Clement of Alexandria sought to provide Christianity with a philosophical framework.

• Clement of Alexandria (150-215 CE)
• Origen (185-254 CE)
• Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE)

Neoplatonism: a school of religious and mystical philosophy founded by Plotinus in the 3rd century CE and based on the teachings of Plato and the other Platonists. The summit of existence was the One or the Good, the source of all things. In virtue and meditation the soul had the power to elevate itself to attain union with the One, the true function of human beings. It was the main rival to Christianity until dying out in the 6th century CE.

• Plotinus (205-270 CE)
• Porphyry (233-309 CE)
• Iamblichus of Chalcis (245-325 CE)

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Classical Antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman literature (such as Aeschylus, Ovid, Homer and others) flourished.

Late Antiquity (3rd-8th century), from the end of the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century (c. 235 - 284) to the Islamic conquests and the re-organization of the Eastern Roman Empire under Heraclius.

Middle Ages, period in history which lasted for roughly a millennium, commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion.
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哲学家名字翻译

Husserl: 胡塞尔
Leibniz: 莱布尼茨
Plutarch: 普鲁塔克 《比较列传》
Plotinus: 普罗提诺